Chapter 13: The Zenith of Qi's Status

To forge an alliance with the increasingly powerful State of Qi, Marquis Mu of Cai married his own sister to Duke Huan of Qi. In Qi, she was known as Lady Cai—not to be confused with the famed Cai Wenji. Lady Cai was lively, bold, charming, and quickly won Duke Huan’s favor, who often took her boating on the lake in the palace gardens.

One day, Duke Huan took Lady Cai out on the lake again. Seeing the bright weather and sparkling waves, she was in high spirits and mischievously rocked the boat from side to side, teasing Duke Huan. Unfamiliar with water, the duke was terrified as the boat rocked violently; his face turned pale, and he repeatedly urged her to stop. Yet Lady Cai found this uncharacteristic display of vulnerability amusing and only intensified her shaking of the boat.

Lady Cai overestimated her standing in Duke Huan’s eyes. Enraged by her reckless game, he sent her back to her natal family in Cai. Marquis Mu understood that his sister had lost Duke Huan’s favor and that her prospects in Qi were bleak. Meanwhile, under King Cheng’s leadership, Chu’s power was rising, and the state was waging campaigns across the south and north, challenging Qi’s dominance. Since Cai bordered Chu and felt its pressure, Marquis Mu decided to marry his sister again—this time to King Cheng of Chu—as a gesture of goodwill.

Though Duke Huan sent Lady Cai home, he did not formally divorce her, thus maintaining the marital ties between Qi and Cai. Upon learning that his nominal wife had been remarried to King Cheng, Duke Huan was furious and resolved to retaliate against both Chu and Cai.

Later, Chu used Zheng’s betrayal—shifting allegiance from Chu to Qi—as a pretext to repeatedly attack Zheng. Ostensibly, these were campaigns against Zheng, but they were also direct challenges to Qi’s leadership of the alliance. In response, Duke Wen of Zheng sought aid from Qi. Duke Huan, harboring old grudges against Chu, wanted to send troops immediately.

However, Guan Zhong grasped that Zheng was not the real issue and advised Duke Huan: “Rather than aid Zheng, it would be better to attack Chu. You should unite the vassal states and launch a joint campaign.” Although Duke Huan agreed in principle, he hesitated, wary that a grand alliance might alert Chu. Guan Zhong then proposed using Cai as a pretext—since Cai bordered Chu—to convene the allies and then swiftly march south to surprise Chu.

In the fourth year of Duke Xi of Lu (656 BCE), Duke Huan gathered forces from Qi, Song, Chen, Wei, Zheng, Xu, and Cao—eight states in total—to attack Cai. The small state of Cai was no match for such a coalition and was quickly defeated. The allied army then turned south toward Chu. King Cheng of Chu, hearing of this sudden assault, dispatched Prime Minister Qu Wan to negotiate.

Upon meeting Duke Huan, Qu Wan bluntly questioned, “You reside by the North Sea, while I am by the South Sea. We are as distant as wind and cattle. Why have you come to Chu without prior notice?” In the Spring and Autumn period, officials adhered to the old Western Zhou ritual, emphasizing that military campaigns must have just cause; without proper justification, the campaign would lose legitimacy, damaging both the leader’s reputation and the troops’ morale.

If Qi could not offer a satisfactory reason, the alliance’s campaign would be deemed unjustified. At this moment, Guan Zhong, of equal rank to Qu Wan, stepped forward and declared loudly: “Long ago, Duke Xian of Lu commanded our forebears, saying, ‘The five marquises and nine lords shall punish and assist the Zhou court!’ granting our ancestors the right to campaign from the sea in the east to the river in the west, from Mu Ling in the south to Wu Di in the north. Chu has failed to present the thatching grass used by the Zhou Son of Heaven for filtering wine on schedule, disrupting the royal ancestral rites. Hence, our lord has come to punish. Furthermore, over three centuries ago, King Zhao of Zhou led a southern campaign against Chu but never returned. Our lord now demands an explanation.”

Over three centuries earlier, King Zhao of Zhou led a catastrophic campaign against Chu, perishing by the Han River. Guan Zhong’s argument, invoking this ancient event and blaming Chu for failing to provide ritual offerings, was a tenuous pretext. Qu Wan replied coolly, “It is our fault for not offering the thatching grass on time; we will correct this. As for King Zhao’s campaign and demise, that concerns neither us nor this matter. If you seek answers, go ask by the Han River.”

The verbal sparring failed to shake the alliance’s resolve, and no decisive fault was found. The allied army continued its advance, encamping near Xing (modern-day near Yancheng, Henan). After several months, Chu’s resistance weakened, prompting Qu Wan to seek peace again. Duke Huan withdrew his troops to Zhaoling. To display strength, Duke Huan ordered the alliance to form ranks and invited Qu Wan to inspect the troops together in a shared carriage.

Duke Huan first probed, “This conflict is not by my own wish. Our states have long maintained friendly relations since our ancestors. Why not renew this friendship and restore ties?” Qu Wan responded cautiously, “If Your Majesty brings blessings to our state, we would gladly accept.”

After a pause, Duke Huan gestured toward his formidable army, “Look upon this vast force I command; who can withstand it? With such strength, what city cannot be conquered?” Qu Wan replied calmly, “If Your Majesty governs with virtue to pacify the states, none would resist. But if you coerce with force, Chu’s natural defenses—Mount Fangcheng as city walls and the mighty Han River as moats—will render your numerical superiority useless.”

Recognizing the wisdom in Qu Wan’s words, Duke Huan agreed to a truce at Zhaoling and withdrew. Because Guan Zhong’s justification for the campaign was Chu’s failure to offer the thatching grass, and Chu agreed to comply, King Cheng sent Qu Wan with the offering to King Hui of Zhou as a gesture of goodwill.

King Hui of Zhou, pleased that the once proud and haughty Chu had returned to pay tribute, rewarded them with sacrificial meat and warmly praised Duke Huan.

Having resolved the Chu issue, the alliance led by Duke Huan soon faced internal discord. Duke Huan wished to return to Qi by traveling through the territories of Chen and Zheng. The presence of the massive allied army alarmed Duke Chen’s minister Yuan Tao Tu, who was uneasy about the heavy demands on his state’s resources and saw no reason to continue supporting the campaign now that its goal was achieved.

Yuan Tao Tu consulted Zheng’s minister, Marquis Shen Hou: “Our army’s route between Chen and Zheng will surely burden our states. Would it not be better to march eastward, display our might among the Eastern Yi, then return along the coast?” Shen Hou readily agreed.

Encouraged by Shen Hou’s support, Yuan Tao Tu approached Duke Huan to request permission for this new route. Duke Huan, seeing no harm, consented.

Shen Hou then reported to Duke Huan, “The army is weary. If it encounters enemies coming from the east, it may be unusable. Returning through Chen and Zheng avoids conflict and ensures supply from both states—this is preferable.” Duke Huan realized the wisdom of Shen Hou’s counsel and understood Yuan Tao Tu’s self-serving intent. Enraged, he ordered Yuan Tao Tu’s arrest. Pleased with Shen Hou’s loyalty, Duke Huan rewarded Zheng with the strategic Tiger Pass (modern-day east of Gongyi, Henan).

Thus, Shen Hou cleverly gained Tiger Pass and strengthened ties between Qi and Zheng. Meanwhile, Chen and Yuan Tao Tu suffered misfortune. After Yuan Tao Tu’s arrest, Duke Huan, increasingly incensed, led the allied forces to attack Chen, accusing it of disloyalty to the alliance.

Chen, a minor state eager to share in Qi’s spoils, was no match for the massive army and quickly sought pardon. Since Chen remained an ally and its offense was minor, Duke Huan, intent mainly on asserting dominance, withdrew his forces and magnanimously returned Yuan Tao Tu to Chen.

Amid this farce, the unforeseen beneficiary was Duke Mu of Xu. Like Qi, Xu was ruled by the Jiang clan. Duke Mu personally led troops in the alliance but, after 38 years on the throne, succumbed to the hardships of the campaign and died in the army.

Though “Duke Mu” was an honorific, Xu’s rank was technically that of a baron. According to Zhou rites, a vassal who died attending court could be buried with a one-rank promotion; one who died in royal service could be raised two ranks. To demonstrate his reverence for the Zhou king and justify the campaign as one of loyalty rather than personal vendetta, Duke Huan posthumously elevated Duke Mu two ranks, burying him with the honors of a marquis.

Displaying his authority to the vassals was not enough for Duke Huan; he also sought to influence the royal succession. At that time, King Hui of Zhou, Ji Lang, reigned. His crown prince Zheng was born to the prior queen. After her death, King Hui installed a new queen who long sought to depose Prince Zheng in favor of her own son, Prince Dai.

Though King Hui was reluctant to oppose his wife, deposing the elder heir for the younger contravened ritual and could not be done openly. The matter lingered unresolved.

Upon learning this, Duke Huan, as hegemon, felt compelled to intervene in the royal household’s breach of propriety. He summoned Guan Zhong, who advised: “This is simple. Convene the vassals for a grand assembly and invite Prince Zheng. By publicly displaying the prince before all, King Hui will be deterred from secretly replacing him.”

In the fifth year of Duke Xi of Lu (655 BCE), Duke Huan held a conference at Shouzhi, gathering Lu, Qi, Song, Chen, Wei, Zheng, Xu, and Cao, inviting King Hui to send Prince Zheng to meet the vassals. Taken by surprise, King Hui reluctantly complied.

This afforded Prince Zheng the opportunity to build rapport with the lords, solidifying his status and deepening his gratitude toward Duke Huan.

However, King Hui was furious—his authority undermined by his subject—and returned to the palace to suffer the queen’s reproaches. He summoned Duke Wen of Zheng. Though Zheng was allied with Qi, cracks had appeared in their relationship. King Hui planned to exploit this to retaliate against Duke Huan.

Previously, Marquis Shen Hou of Zheng had betrayed Chen’s minister Yuan Tao Tu, securing Tiger Pass from Duke Huan, leaving Chen with no gains from the Chu campaign but instead subject to allied punishment; Yuan Tao Tu’s reputation was also ruined. Yet Yuan Tao Tu was clever: once free, he approached Marquis Shen Hou, urging him to fortify Tiger Pass’s walls, sincerely arguing that a strong city would immortalize Shen Hou’s name among neighbors and descendants.

Shen Hou hesitated, citing lack of funds. Yuan Tao Tu pledged to raise resources.

True to his word, Yuan Tao Tu solicited aid from the vassals, and with widespread support, Tiger Pass was soon fortified. Sensing his chance, Yuan Tao Tu reported to Duke Wen: “Do you know that Marquis Shen Hou has strengthened the walls of Tiger Pass?” Duke Wen, puzzled, replied, “Of course, fortifying fiefs is common.” Yuan Tao Tu then asked, “Do you know who granted Shen Hou Tiger Pass?” “Qi Huan Gong,” answered Duke Wen.

Yuan Tao Tu warned, “Qi Huan Gong would not grant such a fief without cause. Shen Hou fortifying the city signals his allegiance has shifted to Qi and that he will soon betray you!” Alarmed, Duke Wen arrested Shen Hou and grew wary of Qi, contemplating rebellion.

King Hui, aware of tensions between Zheng and Qi, said to Duke Wen: “These years of strife between Qi and Chu have unsettled you. Now, under my protection against Chu and with Jin’s support, you can find peace.” This won Duke Wen’s confidence, who, relying on Zhou’s backing and the shelter of the great states Chu and Jin, ceased attending Duke Huan’s assemblies.

Duke Huan, intolerant of such defiance, summoned the allied armies to attack Zheng. Chu intervened multiple times to aid Zheng, but Duke Huan persisted. Unable to endure, Duke Wen executed Marquis Shen Hou to appease Qi. Shen Hou, a favored illegitimate son of King Wen of Chu who had fled to Zheng, was sacrificed to distance Zheng from Chu and realign with Qi.

Subsequently, Duke Wen sought renewed alliance with Qi, and persuaded by Guan Zhong, Duke Huan magnanimously accepted.

This affair made clear not only to Zheng but to all vassals that the Zhou king was unreliable; only by aligning closely with Qi could they secure their survival. Duke Huan’s hegemonic position thus solidified.

Shortly after, King Hui passed away. Crown Prince Zheng, fearing his younger brother Da Shu might rebel, concealed the king’s death and secretly sought aid from Qi. Duke Huan convened the lords at Tao (modern-day east of Lankao, Henan) to jointly endorse Prince Zheng’s accession as King Xiang of Zhou. With the vassals’ recognition, Xiang dared to mourn his father publicly.

Through a series of military campaigns and deft political maneuvers, Duke Huan not only intimidated the other states and consolidated his leadership but also eclipsed the Zhou king’s prestige, deterring rebellion and easily influencing royal succession. Qi’s hegemony had reached its zenith.