Chapter 14: All Feasts Must Come to an End

Duke Huan of Qi, through his campaigns against the Rong and Di tribes, his aid to the states of Yan, Wei, and Xing, and his support in placing the Crown Prince of Zhou on the throne, undertook a series of actions to uphold the royal authority and repel foreign barbarians. These efforts elevated Qi’s prestige among the various vassal states, gradually securing its position as the hegemon. To solidify this de facto dominance with formal recognition, in the ninth year of Duke Xi of Lu’s reign (651 BCE), the second year of King Xiang of Zhou’s rule, Duke Huan convened a grand assembly of vassals at Kuqiu (near present-day Kaicheng in Henan). He gathered rulers from Lu, Song, Wei, Zheng, Xu, Cao, and other states to form an alliance.

The sovereigns arrived as promised. To honor Duke Huan’s great merits in securing peace throughout the realm, the newly enthroned King Xiang of Zhou specially dispatched the Grand Minister, Duke Kong of Zhou (also known as Zai Kong), to attend in person. In a rare gesture, the royal court bestowed upon Duke Huan the sacrificial meat reserved for the Zhou king’s ancestral rites. Because the royal Ji clan had intermarried with Qi’s Jiang clan, Duke Kong respectfully addressed Duke Huan as “Uncle Bo” on behalf of the Zhou king: “The Son of Heaven has just performed sacrifices to King Wen and King Wu, and commands me to present the sacrificial meat to Uncle Bo.”

Duke Huan hastened to bow in gratitude, but Duke Kong stopped him: “Wait a moment. The Son of Heaven also commands that because Uncle Bo is advanced in years and illustrious in virtue, with laborious merits, you are granted an elevation in rank. There is no need to bow.” Hearing this, Duke Huan ceased his obeisance, intending to accept the offering directly. However, Guan Zhong quickly intervened, urging Duke Huan to show the utmost respect to the Zhou king and not to contravene the royal rites. Thus, Duke Huan once again bowed with solemn reverence before Duke Kong, then ascended the sacrificial platform to receive the royal gift.

According to Zhou ritual, the sacrificial meat from the royal ancestral rites was traditionally only granted to vassals bearing the Ji surname. This special bestowal to Duke Huan of the Jiang clan at the assembly before all the lords signified a distinguished honor and openly acknowledged his hegemonic status. Duke Huan’s insistence on kneeling, encouraged by Guan Zhong, was a deliberate display of reverence to the king, allowing him to wield influence over the other vassals under the guise of royal authority.

That autumn, Duke Huan convened the vassals again at Kuqiu, issuing commands in the tone of an overlord: “All those sworn into our alliance must reconcile and maintain peace.” He further declared the Zhou king’s prohibitions to all attending rulers: “Do not block springs; do not hoard grain excessively; do not alter the succession of heirs; do not elevate concubines to wives; do not involve women in state affairs.” Unlike previous assemblies convened to organize military expeditions against the Rong and Chu, this meeting’s theme was peace, urging the allied states to cease hostilities and restore harmony, thereby establishing a stable external environment for recovery and development. This also marked Qi’s nominal assumption of the responsibility and authority to restrain the vassals on behalf of the Zhou king, symbolizing the zenith of Qi’s hegemonic power.

As the saying goes, “When the water is full, it overflows; when the moon is full, it wanes.” The peak of Duke Huan’s power also foreshadowed decline. Duke Kong, who delivered the sacrificial meat, keenly perceived this. After completing his mission, he returned to report to King Xiang. On the way, he encountered Duke Xian of Jin, who had come to attend the Kuqiu assembly upon hearing the news. Jin’s ruler invited Duke Kong to share his insights.

Duke Kong said, “You need not attend the alliance meetings. Duke Huan neglects cultivating virtue and righteousness, pursuing only expansion through constant military campaigns. He wages war against the mountain Rong in the north, battles Chu in the south, and convenes alliances in the west. The eastern policies of Qi are uncertain, but this western assembly seems ineffective. Jin is embroiled in internal strife; you should focus on restoring order at home rather than traveling abroad.” Finding this advice sound, Duke Xian returned home.

In the early Spring and Autumn period, the Zhou royal house was in decline. Only the states of Qi, Chu, Qin, and Jin remained major powers guarding the borders. In his later years, Duke Xian of Jin fell into civil war, unable to maintain hegemony. Duke Mu of Qin expanded territory in the west but did not participate in central plains alliances. King Cheng of Chu consolidated control over the southern tribes and declared himself king, ruling vast lands. Only Qi had both the capacity and the will to lead the central plains alliances, and Duke Huan’s promotion of royal authority and expulsion of barbarians won the obedience of the vassals.

Yet Duke Huan failed to recognize the crucial role of timing and circumstance in his achievements. He believed that his military successes, national wealth, and strong army made his commands irresistible. He fancied his unification of the vassals comparable to the divine mandate bestowed upon the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. Ambitiously, he planned to perform the feng and shan sacrifices on Mount Tai and Mount Liang. Guan Zhong repeatedly advised against this, but to no avail. In exasperation, Guan Zhong said, “The ancients performed these rituals only when auspicious signs appeared: millet from Hao, fine grain from Beili, the tri-furrowed grass from victories in Jianghuai, flounders from the East Sea, and paired birds from the West Sea. Only then would auspicious creatures come unbidden. Now, no phoenix or qilin has appeared; no fine grain grows; fields are overrun with weeds and ravens caw. How can one proceed with these sacrifices under such circumstances?” Duke Huan was left speechless and abandoned the plan, his frustrations known to none.

Though Duke Huan never actualized the ritual, this episode revealed his growing ambition and the hubris born of his successes. Under such conditions, the Qi hegemony began its decline.

After the Kuqiu assembly, Qi’s dominance waned but persisted for some time. In September of the ninth year of Duke Xi of Lu’s reign (651 BCE), Duke Xian of Jin died. He had named Xi Qi, son of his favored consort Li Ji, as his successor. The Jin minister Li Ke, unwilling to accept this illegitimate succession, conspired with allies to assassinate Xi Qi. Subsequently, Prince Zhuo, Li Ji’s brother’s son and Xi Qi’s younger brother, assumed power but was also killed by Li Ke and his faction. Jin’s princes either perished or fled, plunging the state into chaos.

Observing this turmoil, Duke Huan summoned the vassals to aid in pacifying Jin. However, after the army reached Gaoliang (northeast of present-day Linfen, Shanxi), it withdrew. Li Ke, having eliminated Xi Qi and Prince Zhuo, invited Prince Chong’er, who had been in exile, to return and rule. Chong’er politely declined. Li Ke then extended the invitation to Prince Yiwu, also in exile. Fearing treachery but eager to reclaim his throne, Yiwu sought assistance from Qin, promising territorial concessions in exchange for military support.

Duke Mu of Qin dispatched troops to escort Yiwu back. As overlord, Duke Huan also sent Qi minister Xi Peng to join Qin’s forces in escorting Yiwu. In April of the following year, Xi Peng, together with Duke Ji Fu of Zhou and Prince Dang, officiated Yiwu’s enthronement as Duke Hui of Jin. This marked the first formal political contact between Qin in the upper Yellow River region and the central plains states, and demonstrated Qi’s still formidable strength, capable of participating in the deposition and enthronement affairs of a peer state like Jin.

Soon after, the Di tribes attacked again, destroying the state of Wen. Its ruler fled to Wei. The Di continued incursions, harassing Wei and Zheng. Unlike prior grand convocations, Duke Huan, joined by the state of Xu, launched a joint campaign against the northern Rong to restrain their invasions.

In summer of the eleventh year of Duke Xi of Lu’s reign (649 BCE), Prince Dai, who had failed to claim the Zhou throne against King Xiang, conspired with Rong tribes from Yangyi, Juyi, Quanyi, Gaoyi, and regions around Yi and Luo to attack the Zhou capital, burning the eastern gate of the royal city. Duke Mu of Qin swiftly mobilized forces and, in alliance with Duke Hui of Jin, advanced to aid the Zhou king. Duke Huan dispatched Guan Zhong and Xi Peng to represent the Zhou and Jin courts in peace negotiations with the Rong. Their combined efforts compelled the Rong to retreat.

Grateful for Qi’s pivotal role in suppressing the revolt, King Xiang honored Guan Zhong with a banquet befitting a high minister. Guan Zhong humbly declined, saying, “I am but a minor minister of Qi, low in rank and unworthy of such honors.” The king insisted, “This is to reward your merits and virtues. Please do not refuse my command.” Not wishing to offend royal protocol, Guan Zhong compromised by attending with the rank of a lower minister. Later, he was praised for his modesty and loyalty despite his great achievements, deemed worthy of ancestral veneration in perpetuity.

Yet the Zhou dynasty’s troubles persisted. The Yi tribes along the Huai River continually harassed the state of Qi, threatening the royal house. Though the Rong had retreated, they remained a looming menace to the central plains. To safeguard the Zhou court, Duke Huan dispatched Zhong Sun Qiu to serve in Zhou and manage affairs promptly. He also convened the vassals at Xian to muster troops for the defense of the royal domains.

Amid these crises, the southern state of Chu grew increasingly assertive. As Chu’s power expanded, surrounding minor states acknowledged its supremacy. However, when Chu summoned the vassals for an assembly, the state of Huang refused to submit, choosing instead to ally with Qi, Song, and Jiang in a coalition against Chu. As Qi’s influence strengthened, formerly Chu-affiliated states defected. The ruler of Huang reasoned, “Chu’s capital, Ying, lies nine hundred li away; how could it threaten me?” Thus, Huang betrayed Chu. In retaliation, Chu, aiming to assert dominance and warn other southern vassals, invaded and destroyed Huang on the pretext of Huang’s failure to pay tribute.

Years later, Chu attacked the state of Xu. In adherence to the Kuqiu alliance’s spirit, the vassals met at Muqiu to plan relief for Xu. However, after assembling their forces, they attacked Chu’s vassal, the state of Lì, forcing Chu to divert troops to defend Lì and thus relieving Xu. This stratagem failed when Xu’s forces suffered a crushing defeat at Loulin (northeast of present-day Sizhou, Anhui) by Chu. The following year, Duke Huan personally dispatched troops against Lì. Though the campaign did not capture the state, it successfully lifted the siege on Xu.

Facing such turmoil, Duke Huan seemed unaware that Qi was no longer the invincible power of old. Unable to suppress the threats from the Rong and Chu, he turned his military focus eastward toward the Dongyi. In the sixteenth year of Duke Xi of Lu’s reign (644 BCE), Duke Huan convened the vassals by the Huai River to address the issue of the state of Zheng (near present-day Yixian, Shandong) and to intimidate the Dongyi. Utilizing allied labor to construct fortifications for Zheng, the campaign was marred by widespread illness among the workers and ominous nocturnal cries of “Qi is in chaos!” This unrest unsettled both Qi’s court and the allied states, prompting Duke Huan to withdraw his forces before the walls were completed.

Confronted by persistent attacks from the Rong and Chu, Duke Huan no longer possessed the earlier courage to lead relentless pursuits or the confidence to conquer every city. Instead, he resorted to negotiations to secure peace and employed indirect strategies akin to “besieging Wei to rescue Zhao” to aid allies. This decline revealed that although Qi retained the hegemonic title, its strength had significantly diminished.

In October of the seventeenth year of Duke Xi of Lu’s reign (643 BCE), the illustrious life of Duke Huan of Qi, Jiang Xiaobai, who had dominated the political landscape for decades, came to an end—marking the conclusion of Qi’s era of supremacy.