Chapter 15: Regretting Not Heeding the Words of My Uncle

In the fifteenth year of Duke Xi of Lu’s reign (645 BCE), Guan Zhong, who had devoted his entire life to establishing the hegemony of the State of Qi, reached the final chapter of his life. When Duke Huan of Qi heard of Guan Zhong’s grave illness, despite his own advanced age, he personally visited Guan Zhong’s residence. After exchanging pleasantries and offering comfort, Duke Huan asked, “In your view, who is worthy to succeed you as prime minister?”

Guan Zhong replied with great caution, “Your Majesty knows your ministers best. Whom do you favor?”

Duke Huan inclined toward Bao Shuya. Guan Zhong earnestly responded, “Bao Shuya is a gentleman, but he is too rigid in distinguishing good and evil. Such a nature is unsuitable for the role of prime minister.”

Duke Huan then inquired, “How about Yi Ya?” Yi Ya was a favored courtier skilled in cooking. One day, when Duke Huan was unwell and expressed boredom with all delicacies, desiring to taste infant flesh, Yi Ya shockingly killed his own son to prepare a dish for the duke. Upon learning this, Duke Huan was deeply moved and believed Yi Ya’s loyalty surpassed even paternal love, thus favoring him as prime minister after Bao Shuya.

Guan Zhong shook his head in disapproval. “Yi Ya, in his eagerness to please the ruler, sacrificed his own son. Such a man, devoid of humanity and driven by greed and fame, is unfit to serve as prime minister.”

Duke Huan next asked, “What do you think of Kai Fang?” Kai Fang was the eldest illegitimate son of Duke Yi of Wei. When Duke Huan launched a campaign against Wei, Duke Yi sent Kai Fang with gifts to seek peace from Qi. Seeing Qi’s strength, Kai Fang remained in Qi as an official for fifteen years, never returning home. Later, when Wei was destroyed by the Di people and Duke Yi died without intact remains, even his sister, Lady Xu Mu, hurried back to Wei to rebuild the homeland, but Kai Fang remained indifferent, continuing to serve Duke Huan. The duke trusted him, believing his loyalty to Qi surpassed his patriotism.

Guan Zhong replied, “Prince Kai Fang abandoned his rightful position as crown prince of Wei, served the ruler for fifteen years, and didn’t even return for his father’s funeral. Such a heartless and unfilial man cannot truly be loyal to his sovereign. Moreover, having relinquished his fief of a thousand chariots to bow before the ruler, his ambitions surely exceed that of a mere fief; Your Majesty must not entrust him with the prime ministership.”

Duke Huan then asked, “What about Shu Diao? He even mutilated himself to serve me. Can such a man be disloyal?” Shu Diao was a favored eunuch. When Duke Huan sought capable men to manage the harem, Shu Diao self-castrated and entered the palace to serve him.

Guan Zhong, worried, said, “One who does not cherish his own body goes against natural human feelings. How could such a man be truly loyal to Your Majesty? I beg Your Majesty to distance yourself from these three. To favor them would bring chaos to the state.”

After much discussion, the two could not settle on a successor who satisfied both. Duke Huan grew somewhat displeased. Guan Zhong then reluctantly recommended Xi Peng, who had accompanied him to Zhou to negotiate peace with the Rong tribes. He praised Xi Peng as loyal to the ruler and country, honest, diligent, eager to learn without shame, and responsible, always mindful of state affairs even at home. Duke Huan considered this and agreed to appoint Xi Peng as prime minister.

Not long after, Guan Zhong passed away. Throughout his life, as prime minister, he often counseled Duke Huan, who had many flaws: he was fond of grand achievements, indulgent in pleasure, and addicted to women. It was Guan Zhong’s admonitions and checks that prevented many errors, guiding Duke Huan onto the path of respecting the king and expelling barbarians, ultimately cementing his hegemony.

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After Guan Zhong’s death, Duke Huan, though deeply grieved, was freed from the rare restraint imposed by his minister. Following Guan Zhong’s dying wishes, he initially expelled the sycophants Yi Ya, Shu Diao, and Kai Fang. However, now in his seventies, the duke had lost the youthful ambition and enterprise that once drove him and instead indulged daily in pleasure. Deprived of these sycophants, he found his meals tasteless. Believing Guan Zhong’s judgment flawed, he soon recalled them, gradually getting lost in their flattery and sweet words.

In the seventeenth year of Duke Xi of Lu (643 BCE), the aged Duke Huan fell gravely ill. His five sons openly contended for the throne. Yi Ya and Shu Diao, sensing the duke’s impending demise, sealed the palace gates, spreading false royal orders to bar all entry, even withholding water. A palace maid secretly scaled the walls to reach the duke’s chambers. Starved for days, Duke Huan was overjoyed at her arrival and urgently requested food and drink. The maid replied, “I have none to give; Yi Ya and Shu Diao have rebelled and blocked all access. Where could there be any provisions?”

The duke sighed deeply, tears of regret streaming down his face. “I regret not heeding Master Zhong’s advice. If he knows from the afterlife, how can I face him?” With that, he covered his face with his sleeve and starved to death, a hegemon felled by petty men. Overcome with shame, he died in despair.

Even more tragic, after Duke Huan’s death, his five sons busied themselves with fratricidal strife over succession, neglecting his funeral. His body lay unattended on his bed for over two months. Only after Prince Wu Kui, who had helped rebuild the State of Wei following its destruction by the Di, attained the throne, did preparations for Duke Huan’s burial commence. By then, the body was severely decomposed, and maggots crawled out from the palace’s doors and windows. Henceforth, the phrase “neglecting the corpse and turning armor against each other” became a dire warning about the perils of succession disputes. More than two millennia later, Emperor Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty would lament his own succession troubles, fearing he might follow in Duke Huan’s footsteps.

Historical records note: “Duke Huan favored his inner court, having six favored consorts.” His three principal wives—Lady Zhou, Lady Xu, and Lady Cai—bore no legitimate sons. Only six favored concubines bore several illegitimate sons. Among them, Princes Wu Kui, Yuan, Zhao, Pan, and Shang all successively ruled Qi, only to be killed by their own brothers within a few years. After Duke Huan’s death, Qi was plunged into turmoil for over forty years, never regaining its former dominance among the vassal states.

The State of Song was a fiefdom granted to Wei Zi Qi and his descendants, scions of the Shang royal house. Wei Zi Qi, elder brother of the tyrant King Zhou of Shang, had repeatedly admonished the king. After King Wu of Zhou overthrew Shang, Wei Zi Qi surrendered himself humbly at the Zhou military camp, bearing Shang’s ancestral ritual vessels as token of submission.

To appease the remnants of Shang, King Wu restored Wei Zi Qi’s rank and enfeoffed him over the eastern part of today’s Henan Province. Though strategically located between powerful states such as Qi and Lu, and situated on flat, defenseless terrain, Song’s territory was limited and militarily weak, making territorial expansion and hegemony unlikely. Yet, due to historical prestige, Song’s ruler held a high rank and was renowned for reverence to rites and laws, often boasting of benevolence and righteousness.

In the seventeenth year of Duke Xi of Lu (643 BCE), the hegemonic Duke Huan of Qi died. Without a legitimate heir, he had, with Prime Minister Guan Zhong, decided to appoint Prince Zhao, son of Lady Zheng, as crown prince, and had asked Duke Xiang of Song to care for him. However, after Duke Huan’s death, his five favored concubines’ sons all vied for the throne, colluding with ministers and slaughtering one another. To secure the throne for her son Wu Kui, Lady Changwei conspired with Yi Ya and Shu Diao to incite rebellion, killing disobedient officials and installing Wu Kui as ruler.

Prince Zhao, isolated and powerless against the rising forces of Lady Changwei, Yi Ya, and Shu Diao, fled Qi with loyal followers, wandering in exile. Recalling his father’s trust in Duke Xiang of Song and Song’s proximity, he hastened to Song to seek aid.

Though a small state with modest power, Song’s ruler Duke Xiang was ambitious. After Duke Huan of Song’s death, Duke Xiang succeeded as legitimate heir and appointed his virtuous half-brother, Prince Mu Yi, as Sima or prime minister. The brothers worked in harmony, implementing many reforms to enrich and strengthen the state, historically called the “Eastern Palace’s Good Governance.”

Observing Qi’s rise and Duke Huan’s dominance, Duke Xiang resolved to align with Qi. Song actively participated in Qi’s campaigns to rescue Wei and Xing and to punish Chu, and when Zheng rebelled against Qi, Duke Huan seized Zheng’s lands and granted portions to Song. Through these actions, Song’s power and prestige among the vassals grew considerably. Witnessing Duke Huan’s formidable authority, Duke Xiang deeply envied his influence.

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After Duke Huan’s death, Qi was engulfed in internal strife, unable to maintain its hegemony. Duke Xiang of Song, judging Song’s strength and influence had risen, and considering his own high rank and role as custodian of rites, declared himself the rightful successor to Duke Huan’s hegemonic position. Prince Zhao of Qi, seeking refuge in Song, presented a prime opportunity. Supporting Zhao’s restoration would allow Song to control Qi and, by leveraging Qi’s former prestige, legitimate Song’s claim to hegemony.

Duke Xiang thus resolved to escort Prince Zhao back to Qi to assume the throne. Emulating Duke Huan’s precedent, he summoned the vassal states, urging them to send troops to escort Prince Zhao. Yet, Song remained a small power; despite gains from alliance with Qi, it was no match for larger states. Moreover, Wu Kui had already ascended the throne in Qi, and aiding Zhao’s claim risked hostility if failed. Only the smaller states of Cao, Wei, and Zhu heeded Song’s call, sending troops.

Leading this coalition of four states, Duke Xiang advanced into Qi. Though Qi boasted a strong military from years of campaigns, the internal chaos weakened it. Although Wu Kui ruled, factions backing the other princes persisted, and Zhao’s designation as heir by Duke Huan was not widely accepted. Hearing of the approaching coalition, Qi ministers, unwilling to fight to uphold Wu Kui’s questionable rule, assassinated Wu Kui and sought to install Zhao.

However, other factions opposed Zhao’s enthronement and sabotaged the effort. Forced to battle at Yan, Qi’s divided forces suffered a swift defeat and retreated. Seizing victory, Duke Xiang reinstated Prince Zhao as ruler, known historically as Duke Xiao of Qi.

That a coalition led by the small State of Song could defeat mighty Qi, and that Duke Xiao had to rely on Song, greatly inflated Duke Xiang’s ambitions. He believed the time had come for Song to claim hegemony.

In the nineteenth year of Duke Xi of Lu (641 BCE), Duke Xiang arrested Duke Xuan of Teng, who resisted Song’s dominance, and convened a summit south of Cao, inviting rulers from Cao, Zhu, and others. Zheng, an ally of Zhu, arrived late, prompting Duke Xiang to have Duke Zheng of Zheng seized by Duke Wen of Zhu and sacrificed to the local deity, warning vassals and the eastern barbarians.

Prince Mu Yi, Song’s prime minister, found Duke Xiang’s actions excessive. He admonished, “In the past, Duke Huan of Qi aided the fallen states of Wei and Xing, showing great benevolence despite criticism. Now, you convene an alliance yet mistreat two rulers and violate ritual by sacrificing men to spirits. Such methods to seek hegemony are like climbing a tree to catch fish—futile and misguided.”

Duke Xiang ignored this counsel and proceeded with the sacrifice.

Duke Gong of Cao, angered by Duke Xiang’s arrogance before he had secured supremacy, stormed out and ceased relations with Song. Frustrated, Duke Xiang launched a military campaign against Cao, besieging its capital.

Mu Yi again advised, “‘Punish your own wife, even your brothers, to govern your family and state.’ Your governance at home is still imperfect yet you wage war on others. Reflect on your virtues before pursuing hegemony.”

But Duke Xiang’s ambition blinded him to reason. Disregarding Mu Yi’s wise admonitions, he pressed on, setting the stage for his eventual downfall.